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Edward Bagshaw THE GREAT QUESTION CONCERNING THINGS INDIFFERENT IN RELIGOUS WORSHIP

THE GREAT QUESTION CONCERNING THINGS INDIFFERENT IN RELIGOUS WORSHIP

THE GREAT QUESTION CONCERNING THINGS INDIFFERENT IN RELIGOUS WORSHIP,

Briefly stated and tendred to die consideration of all sober and impartial men.

The third edition, Chillingworth Praef. §. 34.

Not protestants for rejecting, but the church of Rome for imposing upon the faith of christians, doctrines unwritten and unnecessary, and for disturbing the churches peace, and dividing unity in such matters, is in an high degree presumptuous and schismatical.

London, printed in the year, 1660.

The publisher of this treatise to the christian and candid reader.

Though opinions should be weighed, not by the reputation of the authors which deliver, but by the strength of the arguments which defend them yet it is too usual with unobserving readers, to slight the argument for the author’s sake, and to consider, not so much what is said who it is that says it. Which being the common fate of most discourses, such especially as do at all meddle with that excellent, but too much abused notion of christian liberty, do most expose the writers to censure: The most obvious character that is fastened upon them, being, that they are men either of loose, or else of factious principles: And so being discredited, before the are read, their books, how sober soever, do not remove, but only fettle and fix the preconceived prejudice; as in diseased stomachs, everything they take turns to nourish and to increase the humor.

That this is like to be the fortune of this small treatise, I have reason to expect, and therefore I have suffered it to run abroad in the world without, a name like one of those (unreadable Greek spelling) Pliny mentions, as if it were born of itself and begotten without a parent. That so those few readers it may meet with, may only fasten upon the faults of the discourse itself without diverting themselves unto that question, which all times, as well at Saul’s, have malice enough to make a proverb of, but who is their father? Yet christian reader, that it may appear only with its own faults, and have no aggravating suspicions upon it, from any mistake of the authors design or humor, I have adventured to give thee this account of him.

First, that he is a strict assertor of the doctrine of the church of England, as it is contained in the 39 articles, and for that which is the prime branch of discipline, viz. episcopacy, or the subordination between bishops and presbyters, he doth own it to be of apostolical institution, that is, as he understands jure divino. At least he thinks himself able to speak as much for the order of bishops in the church, as any can for the baptizing of infants, for the change of the Sabbath, or for anything else, which hath no particular divine precept, but only primitive practice and example to warrant it. And therefore in conformity to this principle of his, when the bishops were sunk lowest, not only for pomp but likewise for reputation and when no temptation either of profit or convenience, but rather the contrary, could work upon him, he then chose to be ordained a presbyter by one of them: which is a greater argument of his reality and steadfastness in judgment, then most of those, who now signalize themselves by distinctive habits, can pretend to; since such may reasonably be presumed to wear them, either because they are the fashion, or else the way to preferment.

Secondly, this I must say likewise, that none is more satisfied with the present government, or hath a more loyal and affectionate esteem for his Majesties person and prudence, than this writer: and therefore instead of declaiming against, or too rigid re-enforcing our old rites, fitted only for the infancy of the church these being as it were its swaddling clouts, and at the best do but show its minority he doth heartily wish that all parties would agree to refer the whole cause of ceremonies to  his Majesties single decision: From whose unwearied endeavors in procuring first, and afterwards in passing so full an amnesty of allow civil discord, we need not doubt but we may obtain, that these apples of ecclesiastical contention may be removed out of the way. Which are so very trifles, that they would vanish of themselves, but that some men’s  pride, others want of merit make them so solicitous to continue them lest it those little things were once taken away, they should want something whereby to make themselves remarkable.

Lastly he doth profess yet further that as to himself be needs not that liberty, which here he pleads for, since, though for the present he doth make use of that indulgence, which his Majesty hath been pleased to allow unto tender conferences, i.e. to all rational and sober christians: (the continuance of which, he dares not so much wrong his Majesties goodness, as once to question) yet should his Majesty be prevailed upon for some reason of state, to enjoin outward conformity, this writer is resolved by the help of God, either to submit with cheerfulness or else to suffer with silence.

For as there is an active disobedience, viz. resist which is a practice he abhors, so there is a passive disobedience, and that is, to repine (hadern) which he can by no means approve of. Since whatever he cannot conscientiously do, he thinks himself obliged to suffer for, with as much joy, and with as little reluctance, as if any other act of obedience was called for from him.

Having said this concerning the author, I need not speak much concerning the argument, but only this, that it was not written out of vanity or ostentation of wit; but as a question, in which he is really unsatisfied and therefore thought himself bound to impart his doubts: Which having done to many in discourse, with little success or satisfaction; he hath now communicated them to the world, hoping they may light into such men’s hands, who may he prevailed upon, if not to alter the judgment, yet at least to moderate the passion of some, who would put out our eyes, because we cannot see with their spectacles; and who have placed ceremonies about religion, a little too truly as a fence: For they serve to keep out all others from their communion. All therefore which this treatise aims at, is briefly to prove this, — that none is to hedge up the way to heaven; or by scattering thornes (Dornen) and punctilio’s (Nadelspitzen) in it, to make christianity more cumbersome, tedious, and difficult, then Christ hath left it. That is in short, that none can impose, what our Savior in his infinite wisdom did not think necessary, and therefore left free.

Farewell

 

THE GREAT QUESTION

Concerning things indifferent in religious worship

Briefly stated and tendred (vorgestellt) to the consideration of all sober and impartial men.

Question: Whether the civil magistrate may lawfully impose and determine the use of indifferent things, in reference to religious worship.

For the understanding and right stating of this question, I will suppose these two things;

1.That a christian may be a magistrate; this I know many do deny, grounding themselves upon that discourse of our Savior to his disciples, “Ye know”, said he, “that the Princes of the Gentiles do exercise dominion over them, and they that are great, exercise authority upon them. But it shall not be so much amongst you:” from whence they infer, that all who will‘ be Christ’s disciples, are thereby forbid any exercise of temporal sovereignty. And I remember amongst many other of the primitive writers, who were of the same opinion, Tertullian in his apology doth expressly say “nos ad omnem, ambitionis auram frigemus”, &c. We Christians says he, have not the least taint of ambition, being so far from affecting honors, that we look not after so much as the aedileship (Ädile), which was the lowest magistracy in Rome; and afterwards of Tiberius, “Tiberius”, says he, “would have become a christian, if either the world did not need or it were lawful for christians to be emperors.”

Many other expressions there are both in Tertullian, Cyprian and Origen, to the same purpose. But because the practice of the christian world, down from Constantine’s time, even in the most reformed churches hath carried it in the affirmative for christian magistracy; and the contrary doctrine, besides the gap it opens to all civil confusion, is built only upon some remote consequences from Scripture, rather than any direct proof; I will therefore admit that a Christian may lawfully exercise the highest place of magistracy, only as the Apostle sais in another case, in the Lord, i.e. no: extending his commission farther than the word of God doth warrant him.

  1. I will suppose that there are some things in their own nature indifferent, I mean, those outward circumstances of our actions: which the law of God hath left free and arbitrary, giving us only general precepts for the use of them either way: Such are, do all things to the glory of God, and do what makes most for edification, and the like, which rules whoever observes, may in things indifferent, either do or forbear them, as he in his christian prudence shall think convenient.

Of these indifferent things some are purely so, as the time and place of meeting for religious worship; which seem to me, to be so very indifferent, that they cannot without great violence, be wrested to any superstitious observance; and therefore concerning these I do not dispute.

Other things there are, commonly supposed indifferent in their own nature, but by abuse have become occasions of superstition: such as are, bowing in the name of Jesus, the cross in Baptism, pictures in churches, surplices in preaching, kneeling at the sacrament, set forms of prayer, and the like; all which seem to some indifferent in their own nature, and by any who is persuaded in his confidence of the lawfulness of them, without doubt may lawfully enough be practiced; yet I hold it utterly unlawful for any christian magistrate to impose the use of them. And that for these reasons:

First, because it is directly contrary to the nature of christian religion in general, which in every part of it is to be free and unforced; for since the christian magistrate cannot, as I think now all protestant writers do agree, force his religion upon any, but is to leave even those poor creatures the Jews and Mahometans to their unbelief (though they certainly perish in it) rather than by fines and imprisonments to torture them out of it; then much less may he abridge his fellow Christian in things of lesser moment, and which concern not the substance of his religion, from using that liberty in serving God, which his conscience prompts him to, and the nature of his religion doth warrant him in. For God as he loves cheerful giver, so likewise a cheerful worshipper, accepting of no more than we willingly perform.

Secondly and more particularly. This imposing of things indifferent, is directly contrary co Gospel precept. Our Savior doth in many places inveigh against the rigid and imposing pharisees, for laying yokes upon others, and therefore invites all to come unto him for freedom. “Take my yoke upon you,” said he, “for it is easy, and my burden is light. And if the son set you free, then are you free indeed. Whereby freedom I do not only understand freedom from sin, but from all human impositions; since the Apostle Paul doth seem to allude unto this place, in that command of his to the Galatians, “stand fast in the liberty, wherewith Christ hath made you free and be not again entangled with the yoke of bondage”; where, that I may prevent an objection, I will grant, that by yoke of bondage, he understands circumcision and other Jewish ceremonies; but from thence I will draw an unanswerable argument against the urging of any other now upon a christian account; for since the mosaical ceremonies which had so much to plead for themselves, upon the account of their divine original; and which even after they were fulfilled by our Savior, still remained indifferent in their use, and were so esteemed and practiced by Paul; yet when once they were imposed, and a necessity pleaded for their continuance, the Apostle writes sharply against them, exhorting the Galatians to stand fast in their liberty, as part of our Saviors purchase. If this, I say, was the cafe with those old rites, then much less can any now impose an invented form of worship, for which there cannot be pretended the least warrant that ever God did authorize it. And it seems altogether needless, that the Jewish ceremonies, should, as to their necessity at least, expire and be abrogated, if others might succeed in their room, and be as strictly commanded, as ever the former were.

For this only returns us to our bondage again, which is so much the more intolerable, in that our religion is styled the perfect law of liberty: Which liberty I understand not wherein it consists, if in things necessary, we are already determined by God, and in things indifferent we may still be tied up to humane ordinances, and outside rites, at the pleasure of our christian magistrates.

To these Scriptures which directly deny all imposition, maybe added all those texts, which consequentially do it, such as are “Do to others, as you would have others do to you”: And who is there that would have his conscience imposed upon? “And you that are strong   bear with the infirmity of the weak; whereas this practice will be so far from easing the burden of the weak; that if men are at all scrupulous, it only lays more load upon them. These scriptures with many hundreds the like, show that this kind of rigor is utterly inconsistent with the rules of christian forbearance and charity, which no christian magistrate ought to think himself absolved from: Since though as a magistrate he hath a power in civil things yet as a christian, he ought to have a care that in things of spiritual concernment he grieve not the minds of any, who are upon that relation, not his subjects, so much as his brethren: and therefore since they have left their natural, and voluntarily parted with their civil, they ought not to be entrenched upon in their spiritual freedom: especially by such a magistrate, who owning the same principles of religion with them, is thereby engaged to use his power, only to support, and not to ensnare them, to bound perhaps, but not to abridge their liberty; to keep it indeed from running into licentiousness (which is a moral evil) but not to shackle, undermine, and fetter it, under pretence of decency and order. Which when once it comes to be an order of constraint and not of consent, it is nothing else but in the imposer, tyranny in the person imposed upon, bondage: And makes him to be, what in things appertaining to religion we are forbidden to be, viz. “the servants of men. Ye are bought”, said the Apostle, with a price and manumitted by Christ, “be you not the servants of men:” which prohibition doth not forbid civil service, for he said a little before. “Art thou called while thou art a servant? Care not for it; but if thou canst be free, use it rather,” implying, that civil liberty is to be preferred before servitude, yet not to be much contended for, but held as a matter indifferent; but when once our masters, shall extend their rule over the conscience, then this precept holds valid, “be ye not the servants of men”

Thirdly, it is contrary co christian practice, of which we have many remarkable instances:

The first shall be that of our Savior Christ, who was of a  most sweet and complying disposition; he says of himself, that he came eating and drinking, i.e. doing the common actions of other men; and therefore he never disclaimed to keep company with any, even the meanest and most despicable sinner; his retinue consisting for the most part of those the Jews called,  (unreadable Greek spelling) i. e. sinners in an eminent find notorious manner; whom as a physician he not only cured; but as a merciful priest sought out to save. Yet when his christian liberty came once to be invaded, he laid aside his gentleness, and proved a stifle and peremptory assertor of it.

To omit many passages, of which his story is full, I shall mention but one and that was his refuting to wash his hands before meat. This was not only a thing in itself indifferent, but likewise had some argument from decency to induce, and a constant tradition from the Elders or Sanhedrim to enforce it, who at this time were not only their ecclesiastical but their civil rulers: Yet all these motives, in a thing so innocent and small as that was, could not prevail with our Savior to quit his liberty of eating with unwashed hands. And in defense of himself, he calls them superstitious fools, and blind guides, who were offended at him; and leaves two unanswerable arguments, which are of equal validity in things of the like nature. As

  1. That this was not a plant, of his father’s planting, and therefore it should be rooted up whereby our Savior intimates, that as the Pharisees had no divine warrant to prescribe such a toy as that was, so God would at last declare his indignation against their supererogatory worship, by pulling it up root and branch. From whence I gather this rule, that when once human inventions become impositions, and lay a necessity upon that, which God hath left free; then may we lawfully reject them, as plants of mans setting, and not of Gods owning.
  2. The second argument our Savior uses is, that, these things did not defile a man, i. e. as to his mind and confidence. To eat with unwashed hands was at the worst, but a point of ill manners, and unhandsome perhaps or indecent, but not an impious or ungodly thing; and therefore more likely to offend nice stomachs, than scrupulous consciences. Whose satisfaction in such things as these our Savior did not at all study. From whence I inferre (schließe), that in the worship of God we are chiefly to look after the substance of things; and as for circumstances, they are either not worth our notice, or else will be answerable to our inward impressions; according to which our Savior in another place, says, “O blind Pharisee, cleanse first the inside of the cup and of the platter that so the outside may be clean, hereby implying, that a renewed hearty will be sure to make a changed and seemly behavior; whereas the most specious outside is consistent with inward filth and rottenness. So that they who press outward conformity in divine worship, endeavor to serve God the wrong way, and often times do only force carnal and hypocritical men to present God a sacrifice which he abhors; while co others that are more tender and scrupulous, they make the sacrifice itself unpleasant, because they will not let it be, what God would have it, a free-will offering.
  1. My second instance shall be the resolution of the Apostles in that famous and important Quaere, concerning the Jewish ceremonies, whether they were to be imposed or not. After a long dispute to find out the truth (unreadable Greek spelling, says the text) Peter directly opposes those rites, why, says he, do ye temp God by putting a yoke upon the neck of the disciples? Intimating that to put a yoke upon others (and to impose in things indifferent is certainly a great one) from which, God hath either expressly freed us, by commanding the contrary; or else tacitly freed us, by not commanding them: This is nothing else but to tempt God, and to pretend to be more wise and holy than he. Again, James decries those ceremonies upon this score, least they should (unreadable Greek spelling,) be troublesome to the converted Gentiles; implying, that however men may think it a small matter, to impose an indifferent thing, yet indeed it is an infinite trouble and matter of disquiet to the party imposed upon, because he is thereby disabled from using his liberty, in that which he knows to be indifferent.

Upon the hearing of these two, the result of the whole council was the brethren should not be imposed upon, although the arguments for conformity were more strong then, than now they can be; because the Jews in all probability, might thereby have been the sooner won be over to the christian persuasion. The decree which that apostolical, and truly christian synod makes

  1. From the stile they use, it seems good (say they) to the Holy Ghost, and to us, — so that whoever exercises the same imposing Power, had need be sure he hath the fame divine authority, for fear he only rashly assumes what was never granted him.
  1. From the things they impose, it seems good, &c. (say they) to lay upon you no greater burden than these necessary things, that you abstain from things offered to idols, from blood, from things strangled, and from fornication. Whence I observe,
  1. that they call their imposition (unreadable Greek spelling) a weight, or burden, which is not unnecessarily to be laid on the shoulders of any.
  1. they say, they forbid only (unreadable Greek spelling) these very necessary things, to show, that necessary things only, and not indifferent, should be the matter of our imposition.

For whereas some gather from hence, that the church, i.e. where a state is christian, the christian magistrate hath a power to oblige men to the doing of things he commands, though in their own nature they be indifferent; because they suppose that the Apostles did so; as for example, in forbidding to eat blood. Therefore consider,

  1. that this is quite contrary to the Apostles scope, whose business was to ease and free, and not to tie up their brethren; and therefore they say, they merely do lay upon them things very necessary.
  1. That all those things they forbid, were not indifferent, but long before prohibited by God, not only in the ceremonial, but in his positive law, and therefore obligatory, whereupon the Apostles call them necessary, i.e. things necessary to be forborne, even before they had made any decree against them: As
  1. (unreadable Greek spelling) i.e. the meat of things offered to idols: To eat of them was not in all cases indifferent; for to so it with conscience of the idol, i.e. intending thereby to worship the idol, this was a thing against the second commandment. But if a man was convinced that the idol was nothing, and therefore the meat, though consecrated, was free to him: Yet if his weaker brother was offended; he was then to abstain in observance of christian charity and condescencion: But if the eater himself did doubt, then was he to forbear for his own peace and quiet’s sake, for to eat, while he was unsatisfied whether it was lawful or not, was nothing else but to condemn himself, as the Apostle says, “He that doubts is (not damned as we render it, but (unreadable Greek spelling)) — condemned i.e. self condemned if he eat, because he doth that which he inwardly doth either not approve, or else at least suspects, that it is not lawful: So that the case of eating (unreadable Greek spelling), being so nice, and so apt co be mistaken: The Apostles do make their prohibitionuniversal, as that which was most safe, and least subject to scruple.
  1. (unreadable Greek spelling) Blood; i.e. flesh with the blood; or, as some, raw flesh; and things strangled; to eat these was not indifferent, but prohibited long before by God, in his law given to Noah. And therefore the Apostles prohibition here, is not to be interpreted, as their giving a temporary law, with respect had to the then constitution and economy of the Jews (as some I think weakly and without ground from Scripture, imagine) but rather as their reviving and re-enforcing an old law, which being given by God to Noah, both then was, and still is obligatory to all his posterity, God having no where dispensed with it.
  1. Lastly, (unreadable Greek spelling), if you render it fornication, then it is evidently contrary to those precepts of purity, holiness and perfection, which God everywhere requires. But if you expound it, as many learned men do, unlawful copulations; then the prohibition enforces upon us the observance of those laws concerning marriage, which are recorded in Levit.18 and which is evident, are not in their own nature indifferent, since marrying with our mother, sister or daughter, the heathen Plato and the Grecian laws condemned even by the light of nature. And God, there in that chapter, calls the contrary practices, abominable customs; for which he threatens to root even the heathen out, v.27.ad fin.

From what hath been said out of this instance, 1. conclude, that since, i.e. the Apostles, though divinely inspired, yet did not impose any rites upon the church , by their own proper power, but join themselves with the Holy Ghost, as being acted and commissioned by him. Since, 2., they use no arguments from decency to justify their imposition, nor by any unnecessary burden upon any, by forbidding or enjoining things purely indifferent but only prohibit such things, as they call, and it is clear from what has been said, were necessary. And lastly, since the retaining some of the more innocent and less burdensome ceremonies of the Jews, in point of order and convenience only, would in all probability have been the readiest means to bring chat precise and superfluous people unto a compliance with the Gospel; and without doubt for that reason would have been enjoined, had the Apostles conceived they had any power to have meddled with them.

Hence I conclude, for persons,

1. Who have no such authority.

2. in things much more indifferent.

And lastly, where the necessity of conformity is nothing near so pressing and urgent. For such, I say, to take upon themselves an arbitrary and an imposing power, it is altogether unwarrantable, and consequently sinful.

  1. My last instance shall be that of the Apostle Paul, who was of an universally complying carriage; he says of himself, that he became all things to all men even to Jews at a Jew, &co. with many more words to the same purpose. And to show his liberty, he circumcised Timothy, though a Greek, that he might gain the Jews in those parts. But when once a sect of men rose up, who began to preach the necessity of circumcision, he doth in many places sharply inveigh against them, calling them dogs, evil workers, and in derision, (unreadable Greek spelling), or the concision, and concludes his epistle to the Galatians, with bidding them to beware of such, as labored to boast in their flesh i. e. sought to bring them unto a conformity in those outward ordinances. Nay so jealous and precisely careful was that Apostle of this great christian privilege and charter, viz. freedom in indifferent things; that he could not brook so much as Peters suspicious carriage in that particular, but for his dissimulation, and pretending to be less free, then he was;

Paul says, that he openly reproved him to his face. And for other false brethren, who crept into their assemblies, merely to spy out their liberty, and without doubt, used the fame arguments for conformity, which many do now; the Apostle says, he resisted them, and yielded not to them, so much as for a moment.

And that he might forever preserve his Galatians from being ensured, and brought under bondage again, he leaves them the caveat, I mentioned before, stand fast in your liberty, &e. From whence I infer, that so long as a thing is left indifferent, though there be some suspicion of superstition in it, we may lawfully practice it, as Paul did circumcision; but when any shall take upon them to make it necessary, then the thing so imposed presently loses not its liberty only, but likewise its lawfulness; and we may not without breach of the Apostles precept, submit unto it: Because we thereby do own, that those whose injunctions we obey, had a power to impose; and so by assenting, we become abettors and promoters of their usurpation.

  1. My last argument against impositions shall be taken from the inconveniences that attend such a practice. For though I lay little stress upon such kind of arguments (because truth is to be tried by its evidence, and not by its consequences) yet because,
  1. In principles, on which moral actions are grounded, the inconveniences do use to be weighed, and that doctrine for the most part seems most true, at least most plausible, which is attended by fewest inconveniences and because,
  1. the opposers of liberty, haw very little elseto urge for themselves, but by pretending the many inconveniences that flow from it.

Therefore I shall clearly prove that many more absurd and more destructive and fatal consequences attend the doctrine of impositions, then the doctrine of christian liberty, as,

  1. The first inconvenience is the impossibility to fix a point where the imposer will stop. For do but once grant, that the magistrate hath power to impose, and then we lie at his mercy, how far he will go. For the unmarried state of the clergy, holy unction, consecrating the host &co. are as indifferent in their own nature, as using the cross, or surplice. And if the magistrate hath indeed lawful power to impose, he may as well command those, as these, especially if he be convinced that they are either decent or convenient; at which door have entered in all those gross fooleries, which are in the popish worship: Any of which, take them singly and apart from the circumstances which determine them, so they are indifferent, and may, for ought I know, be conscientiously observed.

But put them together and consider the power which imposes, and the end which continues them, so they are the grossest idolatry, and the vilest tyranny that ever yet was practiced. For we are for the most part mistaken in the notion of popery, if we see a surplice, or a cross, or organs, or bowing, we presently cry out popery: Whereas I think it a more manifest sign of popery to forbid these things, as we do, under penalties, then to practice them with freedom. If, I understand anything of Antichrist, his nature seems to consist in this that he acts in a way contrary to Christ i.e. instead of a spiritual, he brings in a devised worship; and instead of freedom, lays a constraint even upon our devotion. So that, as John in his revelation says of him, “Men shall neither buy nor sell, who have not a mark; i.e. who do not serve God in that outward way, which he commands. So that whoever doth own the doctrine of imposition though in the smallest circumstance of worship he brings in the essence, though not the name of popery; and lays down that for his foundation, on which all the will-worship, which this day reigns in the world, is bottomed.

For whatever opinions we have concerning the necessity of bowing, kneeling or the like, while they stand confined to our private practices, they are at worst but hay and stubble, which will perish at the day of account, though he that doth them may very well be saved. But when once a man goes further and not content with his persuasions, envies his brother that liberty, which he himself desires to enjoy; and seeks to obtrude his conceits upon others, who perhaps are not so well satisfied as he is: Whoever doth this, becomes impious to God, by invading his sovereignty, and lording it over another man’s conscience; and likewise injurious to men, by pressing such things, as are only baits to the careless, and traps for the conscientious. I know very well, that the Argument is specious and often urged — why should men be so scrupulous? Most pleading for ceremonies, Lot did for Zoar, are they not little things? But l answer, 1. that a little thing unwarrantably done is a great sin. 2. That a little thing unjustly gained, makes way for a greater: and therefore we should not let the serpent get in his head, how beautiful soever it seems, lest he bring in his tail, and with that his sting – how curious even almost to superstition, our Savior and his Apostles especially Paul, were in this point, I have already mentioned; by whose example we are little profited, if we do not learn, that in impositions we are not so much to consider how small and inconsiderable the thing imposed is, as how lawful it is: Not, what it is in itself, as whither it tends, and what will he the consequence of it admission. For the smaller the thing imposed is, the more is our christian liberty invaded, and consequently the more injurious and sinful is its imposition.

  1. The second inconvenience is, that it quite inverts the nature of christian religion; not only by taking away its freedom, but likewise its spirituality; our Savior says, that God will now be worshipped not in show and ceremony, but in spirit, and in truth; whereas this doctrine of imposition, places it in such things, in the observance of which, superstition will be sure to out-do devotion. But true religion like the spirits of wine or subtle essences, whenever it comes to ne opened and exposed to view, runs the hazard of being presently dispirited, and lost. In the service of God there is a vast difference, between purity and pomp, between spirit and splendor; whereas the imposer only drives at, and improves the latter; but of the former is altogether secure and careless, as is evident in those places, where uniformity is most strictly practiced.
  1. This doctrine making no provision at all for such as are scrupulous and tender, supposes the same measure of faith in all: Whereas nothing is more clear, then as the Apostle says concerning things offered to idols, so concerning ceremonies, I may say, that all have not knowledge. But to this day many there are utterly unsatisfied with the lawfulness of any, and most are convinced of the uselessness of them all. Whose consciences, how erroneous soever, yet are to be tenderly and gently dealt with; lest by our rigid commanding what they can by no means comply with, we bring them unto that dangerous dilemma, either of breaking their inward peace and comfort, by doing outwardly what they do not inwardly approve of: Or else of running themselves upon the rocks of poverty and prejudice, by disobeying what is commanded. For though we are upon all occasions to suffer gladly, yet let not Reuben smite Ephraim; let us not receive our wounds in the house of our friends, for then our sufferings will be sharpened from the consideration of the unkindness, that our brethren should put us upon the needless trial of our faith and patience, especially in such things, which white the imposer calls indifferent, he thereby acknowledges, that they may very well be spare.
  1. The last inconvenience is that by impositions, especially when the penalty is severe, we seem to lay as much weight and stress upon these indifferent things, as upon any the most material parts of our religion. This rigid irrespective obtruding of small things makes no difference at all between ceremony and substance. So that a man who were not a Christian at all, would find as good, nay perhaps better usage from the imposer, then he who laboring and endeavoring to live up to other parts of christian faith, shall yet forbear to practice these ceremonies: Which is not only harsh and cruel, but very incongruous dealing, that a Jew or Mahometan, should be better regarded, than a weak and scrupulous Christian. This is nothing else, but to deal with our fellow Christians, as Jephtha did with the Ephraimites, to kill them for no weightier crime, than because they cannot pronounce Shibboleth.

To these inconveniences I might add the certain decay of the growth of religion as to its inward purity, while there is this disguise and mask of needless ceremonies upon it to keep it under; but those which I have already urged, are so great, that those which are commonly insisted upon by men of another persuasion, are not at all to be put into the balance with them; as will appear by this brief answer to their main objections.

  1. They object that this will be the way to beget all manner of disorder and confusion; that every man will have a several fashion and custom by himself; and for want of uniformity and ceremony, the unity and essence of religion will perish. But I answer,
  1. Doth any pled for Baal? He that will abuse the principle of liberty, to justify his licentiousness of life, let him know that the magistrate bears not the sword in vain, but has it to cut off such offenders. If you suffer as Christians, said the Apostle, rejoice at it; but let none suffer, as a thief, murderer (unreadable Greek spelling), seditious person, a state-incendiary, or as a busy intermeddler in other men’s matters, for he that doth these things suffered justly; nor can he plead anything from the Gospel, which is a rule of strictness, to exempt him from punishment. But

2.This disorder, which is so vehemently and so tragically aggravated, and for the prevention of which, ceremonies must be invented and forced, is indeed nothing else but a malicious and ill-founding name, put upon an excellent and most comely thing, i.e. variety, For as God, though he be a God of order, hath not made all men of one countenance, and in the world hath given several and divers shapes to many things, which yet are the same for substance; so in the assemblies of his people, who all come to honor him, and agree in the essence of his worship, why should we doubt, but God will be well pleased with their variety in circumstances? The exercise of which not only their consciences do prompt, but God himself doth induce them to, because in his word he hath not prescribed anyone outward form, that all should necessarily agree in; but in such things hath left them to the dictates of their own spirits, and the guidance of christian prudence; which variety is so far from being a confusion, that nothing can be more comely and harmonious, as serving to set out the indulgence of God, the arbitrary actings of the Holy Spirit, and the liberty of the Saints, who can preserve unity in mind, without uniformity in behavior.

  1. The second Objection is, the practice of the Jewish Princes, who as soon as ever they were installed in their Kingdoms, set upon reforming the house of God, and imposing upon all a form of worship: Which since all Scripture is written by divine inspiration, and for our instruction, seems to be a leading case that christian Princes should imitate them, and do so likewise. But l answer, i.e. though arguments taken from analogy are of very little weight, when positive precepts are required, yet I will grant, that the piety of the Jewish, is, and ought to be exemplary to the christian magistrates — but withal I deny the inference, since the Jewish Princes, when they reformed religion, they therein followed a divine law, which did command it from them, and which, in the minutest circumstances, had provided for uniformity worship from which rigor and restraint all Christians are absolved, and therefore it is very unconcluding to argue from the Jews, who had; to the christian magistrate, who wants divine authority. To this is also objected,
  1. That since things necessary to the worship of God, be already determined by God, and over them the magistrate hath no power; if likewise he should have no power in indifferent things, then it would follow that in things appertaining to religion, the christian magistrate had no power at all — which they think to be very absurd – so the reverend and learned Mr. Hooker, and Dr. Sanderson. But I answer,
  1. It is no absurdity at all, that Princes should have no more power in ordering the things of God, then God himself hath allowed them. And if God hath no where given them such an imposing power, they must be content to go without it. But in this case, where will the christian magistrate find his warrant, the Scriptures being utterly silent, that he is now to take such authority upon him, which, because the thing concerns not man, but the worship of God, had it been thought necessary and fit, would certainly not have been omitted.
  1. It is so far from being an argument for impositions, to urge that the thing imposed is indifferent, that there cannot be a stronger argument against them: Since it is as requisite to christian practice, that things indifferent should still be kept indifferent, as things necessary, be held necessary, – As I have already proved.

Lastly, it is much more suited to the nature of the Gospel that christian Princes should reform religion, rather by the example of their lives, then by the severity of their laws; and if they may show their power at all in this case, it should rather be b y subtracting then by adding. By taking away all impertinences, which may hinder the progress of it, rather than by obtruding unwarrantable methods, to tie all men up to such outward forms; as may make piety suspected only for policy disguised.

Much more might be said for this from authority, but I willingly wave it. For if Scripture and reason will not prevail to hinder impositions, I have no cause to expect that any sentences from antiquity should. Only this is certain, that all the writings of the Christians for the first three hundred years, are full of nothing else, but such arguments as evince a liberty, more absolute and universal then I contend for. And likewise it may be of some weight, that the churches doctrine was then more pure, their discipline more strict and severe then now; and yet they had nothing but mutual consent, either to establish or protect it, the magistrates being all against them. But when once Constantine took upon him to manage the affairs of the church, and by penal laws, ratified and confirmed church-orders, he laid that foundation of antichristian tyranny, which presently after him, his son Constantius exercised, against the assertors of the trinity: And, the churches worldly power increasing as fast, as the purity of religion did decrease; the bishops of Rome within a few years, gained to themselves, and have ever since practiced severely against such, whom they call heretics, i.e. deniers of their factious doctrine; and opposers of their most ungospel-like, but indeed most politic and prudential impositions, whose furious and bloody tenets, like subtle poison, have run through the veins of almost all professors, scarce any sort even of protestants, allowing to others that liberty of religion,  which at the beginning of their sects, they justly challenged to themselves.

Nor is there any hope, that the world should be freed from cruelty, disguised under the name of zeal, till it please God to inform all magistrates, how far their commission reaches , that their proper province is only over the body, to repress and correct those moral vices, to which our outward man is subject: But as for christian religion, since it is so pure and simple, so free from state and worldly magnificence, so gentle and complying with the meanest christian, and withal so remote from harshness, rigor and severity, there the magistrate most consults Gods honor and his own duty, if being strict to himself, he leaves all others in these outward ceremonies to their inward convictions. Which liberty, is so tar from weakening, that it is indeed the security of a throne; since besides gaining, the peoples love (especially the most conscientious and sober of them) it doth in a special manner entitle him to Gods protection:  Since in not pretending to be wiser then God, he gives religion that free and undisturbed passage, which our Savior seems by his life and death to have opened for it.

FINIS.

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John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, Tract I, Section 83, Absatz 83,

John Locke: Two Tracts on Government

John Locke, Two Tracts on Government,

Tract I, Section 83, Absatz 83,

“So that a man who were not a Christian at all would find as good, nay perhaps better usage from the imposer, than he who laboring and endeavoring to live up to other parts of Christian faith, shall yet forbear to practice thou ceremonies: Which is not only harsh and cruel but very incongruous dealing, that a Jew or Mahometan should be better regarded than a weak or scrupulous Christian.”

Whatever other country do, England is clear of this imputation. Yet I shall further add that he who thinks he ought to allow a Turk as well as a Christian the free use of his religion, hath as little reason to force or abridge the one contrary to his Quran as the other contrary to his Gospel, and can as little forbid circumcision to the one as baptism to the other.

But yet nevertheless he retains an absolute authority over all those indifferent actions which the respective law of each hath left undetermined, but the reason why perhaps he determines the indifferent things of his own profession whilst he leaves those which he disregards free is (by the example of the great lawmaker who though he strictly tied up his own people to ceremony in the true worship yet never prescribed a form to the idolaters in their false) lest by enjoining positive ceremonies in their religion he might seem to countenance and command its profession and by taking care for their worship acknowledge something good and right in it; it being irrational that the magistrate should impose (possibly he might forbid) any indifferent actions in that religion wherein he looks on the whole worship as false and idolatrous.

The Christian Prince that in any public calamity should enjoin a fast and command the Christians in their public place of worship to send up their prayers to God and implore his mercy might perhaps at the same time prohibit his subject Turks the ordinary works of their vocations, but would never send them in sackcloth and ashes to their mosques to intercede with Mohamed for a blessing (which he might be well supposed to do were he of their persuasion) and so encourage their Superstition by seeming to expect a blessing from it; this would be to condemn his own prayers, to affront his own religion and to provoke God whom he endeavors to appease, and proclaim his distrust of him whilst he seeks help from another. Though those of different religions have hence small occasion to boast of the advantage of their condition, whatsoever is bated in ceremonies being usually doubled in taxes, and the charge their immunity puts them to in constant tributes will be found far heavier than the occasional penalties of nonconforming offenders.

“Damit wäre möglich, dass ein Mensch, der überhaupt kein Christ ist, vom Verfügenden eine ebenso gute, nein, vielmehr bessere Behandlung erfährt, als der, sich zwar stetig müht und anstrengt, den göttlich bestimmten Bestanteilen des christlichen Glaubens Genüge zu tun, sich aber dennoch wiedersetzt, Eure Zeremonien zu vollziehen: Es wäre nicht nur eine harsche und grausame Behandlung, sondern gar eine sehr unangemessene, wenn ein Jude oder Muslim wohlwohlender betrachtet würde, als ein schwacher oder vom Gewissen geplagter Christ.“

Was auch immer in anderen Ländern vor sich geht, England ist frei von dieser Unterstellung. Dennoch muss ich hier weiter gehend anmerken: Wer denkt, er müsse einem Türken gleichermaßen wie einem Christen zugestehen, den eigenen Glauben vollumfänglich unbeschränkt auszuüben, hat folglich kaum vernünftige Gründe, den einen entgegen dessen Koran zu etwas zu drängen oder ihm etwas zu verbieten, als er diese dem anderen gegenüber entgegen dessen Evangelium hätte. Er könnte deshalb dem einen die Beschneidung ebenso wenig verbieten, wie dem anderen die Taufe.

Nichtsdestotrotz behielte die Obrigkeit dennoch absolute Autorität betreffend alle jene unbestimmten Angelegenheiten und Handlungen, welche das jeweils zugehörige Recht unbestimmt gelassen hat. Der Grund aber, warum sie möglicherweise tatsächlich unbestimmte Gegebenheiten des eigenen Bekenntnisses bestimmt, während sie solche eines anderen Glaubens, welchen sie nicht beachtet, offen lässt, besteht darin (dem Beispiel des großen Gesetzgebers folgend, der, selbst wenn er sein eigenes Volk strikt an Zeremonien zur wahren Huldigung band, dennoch niemals den Götzendienern eine Form für deren Irrglauben vorschrieb) dass sie nicht den Eindruck erwecken will, deren Glauben zu dulden und anzuleiten. Oder gar durch die Sorge um deren Huldigung gar irgendetwas Gutes und Richtiges darin anzuerkennen. Es wäre vollkommen irrational, würde eine Obrigkeit über irgendwelche unbestimmten und unbedeutenden Handlungen bei einer Religion verfügen, deren Huldigungsform sie insgesamt als falsch und götzendienerisch betrachtet.

Ein christlicher Fürst, der anlässlich irgendeines öffentlichen Unglücks ein Fasten anordnet und den Christen aufträgt, sich zur Huldigung an ihren öffentlich dazu vorgesehenen Orten einzufinden, um ihre Gebete zu Gott zu erheben und seine Gnade zu erflehen, vermag womöglich gleichzeitig seinen türkischen Untertanen die reguläre Verrichtung ihrer Berufung zu untersagen, aber er würde sie niemals in Sack und Asche in ihre Moscheen schicken, um sich bei Mohamed für einen Segen einzusetzen (wozu er durchaus berechtigt wäre, wäre er ihrer Überzeugung) und dadurch ihren Aberglauben bestärken, indem er den Eindruck erweckt, er erwarte dadurch eine Segnung. Das wäre eine Verunglimpfung der eigenen Gebete, eine Attacke auf die eigene Religion und eine Provokation Gottes, den er eigentlich zu besänftigen versucht. Es wäre vielmehr sogar eine Proklamation des Misstrauens gegenüber ihm, indem er bei einem anderen Hilfe sucht.

Demzufolge haben die Mitglieder anderer Religionen wenig Gelegenheit mit den Vorteilen ihrer religiösen Situation zu prahlen, denn was man ihnen bei den Zeremonien freistellt, gleichen sie gewöhnlich durch einen doppelten Steuersatz aus, weswegen der Preis für ihre Immunität sie ständig einem höheren Tribut aussetzt, der mit Fug und Recht als deutlich schwerer zu betrachten ist, als die gelegentlichen Strafen für abweichlerische Christen.

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John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, Tract I, Section 82, Absatz 82,

John Locke: Two Tracts on Government

John Locke, Two Tracts on Government,

Tract I, Section 82, Absatz 82,

“The last inconvenience is that by impositions, especially when the penalty is severe, we seem to lay as much weight and stress upon these indifferent things as upon any the most material parts of our religion.”
(Quotation Bagshaw)

If the magistrate employ his power only within those bounds that are set to his authority he doth not thereby slight or undervalue those things that are out of his reach. Were faith and repentance, the substantial parts of religion, entrusted to his jurisdiction and open to his knowledge we might possibly find his penalties severer in those things than in any other.

But God, the judge of hearts, hath reserved both the knowledge and censure of these internal acts to himself, and removed those actions from the judgment of any tribunal but his own. We may well spare the magistrate the exercise of his sovereignty in those things wherein God doth not allow it, and we have as little reason to accuse him of usurpation because he makes use of the authority that is put into his hands as of negligence and lukewarmness because he goes not beyond his commission.

Nor doth human impositions in indifferent things advance them above the more substantial and necessary which stand above them by the appointment of a superior law enjoined by divine authority, and therefore challenges the first and chiefest part of our homage and obedience, so that though he say

“that this rigid irrespective obtruding of small things makes no difference at all between ceremonies and substance”, (Quotation Bagshaw)

‚tis certain it puts as much difference as is acknowledged between an human and a divine law, as between the commands of God and the injunctions of man. The magistrate whilst he reverently forbears to interpose his authority in these things lays a greater stress upon them by acknowledging them to be above his authority, and he that in all other things stands above and commands his people, in these descends to their level and confesses himself their fellow subject.

“Die letze Unannehmbarkeit schließlich besteht darin, dass wir durch Verfügungen, besonders wenn sie mit strengen Strafen verknüpft sind, den Eindruck erwecken als legten wir gleichermaßen viel Gewicht und Nachdruck auf eben jene unbestimmten und eigentlich unbedeutenden Angelegenheiten, als auf irgendeinen substantiellen Bestandteil unserer Religion.“
(Zitat Bagshaw)

Sofern die Obrigkeit ihre Macht lediglich innerhalb der Grenzen ihrer Autorität ausübt, diskriminiert oder entwertet sie dadurch jene Gegebenheiten nicht, die außerhalb ihrer Reichweite liegen. Wären Glaube und Reue, die wesentlichen Elemente der Religion, ihrer Rechtsprechung überantwortet und stünden ihrer Erkenntnis offen, dann empfänden wir möglicherweise ihre Bestrafungen bei diesen Gegebenheiten als schwerwiegender als bei irgendeiner anderen Angelegenheit.

Indessen aber hat Gott, der Richter aller Herzen, beide, die Erkenntnis und die Beurteilung all jener innerlichen Handlungen sich selbst vorbehalten und sie deshalb dem Urteil irgendeines anderen Tribunals entzogen. Wir dürfen der Obrigkeit getrost die Ausübung ihrer Souveränität bei diesen Angelegenheiten ersparen, bei welchen Gott sie ohnehin nicht erlaubt. Gleichzeitig haben wir genauso wenig Anlass ihn der Usurpation anzuklagen, sobald er Gebrauch von der Autorität macht, die in seinen Händen liegt, als wir hätten, ihn der Vernachlässigung oder Lauheit zu bezichtigen, weil er seinen Handlungsbereich nicht überschreitet.

Ebenso wenig erheben menschliche Verfügungen über unbestimmte Gegebenheiten solche über die essentielleren und notwendigeren, die doch auf Grund Berufung durch ein übergeordnetes Recht durch göttliche Autorität vorgeschrieben sind oder erfordern deshalb höchste und hauptsächlichste Huldigung und Gehorsam, wie es mit folgenden Worten zum Ausdruck gebracht werden soll:

“dass dieses unbeugsame, losgelöste Aufdrängen kleiner Dinge keinerlei Unterschied zwischen Zeremonien und Wesenskern ausmacht.“
(Zitat Bagshaw)

Sicher ist: Es verursacht genauso viel Unterschied, als zwischen einem menschlichen und einem göttlichen Gesetz anerkannt ist, oder zwischen einer Anordnung Gottes und einer Verfügung der Menschen. Indem die Obrigkeit angemessen ehrfürchtig Gottes Autorität über jene Gegebenheiten zu verfügen würdigt, verleiht sie ihnen größeren Nachdruck, da sie damit deren Überordnung über die eigene Autorität anerkennt. Sie, die in allen anderen Angelegenheiten über ihrer Bevölkerung steht und sie befehligt, steigt bei jenen Gegebenheiten Gottes auf den Rang des Volkes hinab und bekennt sich selbst, zu Gottes Gefolge zu gehören.

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John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, Tract I, Section 67, Absatz 67,

John Locke: Two Tracts on Government

John Locke, Two Tracts on Government,

Tract I, Section 67, Absatz 67,

“The opposers of liberty have very little else to urge for themselves besides inconveniencies.”

But the defenders of the magistrate’s power offer something more when they tell you that a man cannot part with his liberty and have it too, convey it by compact to the magistrate and retain it himself:

“The first inconvenience is the impossibility to fix a point where the imposer will stop. For do but once grant that the magistrate hath a power to impose, and then we lie at his mercy how far he will go.”

An inconvenience as strong against civil as ecclesiastical jurisdiction:

Do but once grant the magistrate a power to impose taxes and we then lie at his mercy whether he will leave us anything.

Grant him a power to confine anyone, and we cannot be long secure of any liberty: Who knows how soon he will make our houses our prisons.

Grant him a power to forbid assemblies and conventions, and who knows how long he will allow us the company of our friends, or permit us to enjoy the conversation of our relations.

A practice not unknown to the Presbytery of Scotland, who took on them at pleasure to forbid the civil and innocent meeting of friends in any place but the church or market, under pretence to prevent evil and scandal.

So far will religious and spiritual jurisdiction be extended even to the most indifferent of common actions when it falls into busy and unskillful hands.

Grant once that the magistrate hath a power to command the subject to work, and limit his wages too, and who can secure us that he will not prove rather an Egyptian taskmaster than a Christian ruler, and enforce us to make brick without straw to erect monuments of his rigor and our slavery.

“Die Gegner der Freiheit haben wenig mehr anzumahnen, als deren Unannehmbarkeiten.”

Allerdings bieten die Verteidiger der Macht der Obrigkeit einiges mehr, wenn sie Euch darauf hinweisen, dass ein Mensch unmöglich seine Freiheit abtreten und sie gleichzeitig in vollem Umfang behalten kann, sie also vertraglich der Obrigkeit zu übertragen und dennoch alles selbst zu bestimmen:

“Die erste Unannehmbarkeit besteht in der Unmöglichkeit, den Punkt festzulegen, an dem jegliches Verfügen zu stoppen hat. Denn gewähre der Obrigkeit nur ein einziges Mal eine Macht, Verfügungen zu erlassen und ab dann wird es ausschließlich in ihrem gnädigen Ermessen liegen, wie weit sie dabei geht.“

Das ist eine Unannehmbarkeit mit ebenso starker Wirkung gegen bürgerlich wie kirchliche Rechtsprechung:

Gewähre der Obrigkeit nur einmal die Macht, Steuern zu erheben und schon wird es ihrem Ermessen unterliegen, uns überhaupt irgendwas zu belassen.

Gewähre ihr die Macht, einen jeden zu bestrafen und wir können uns unserer Freiheit nicht mehr lange sicher sein. Wer weiß schon, wie lange es dauert, bis sie aus unseren Häusern unsere Gefängnisse macht?

Gewähre ihr die Macht, Versammlungen und Treffen zu verbieten, und wer weiß wie lange sie uns noch die Gesellschaft unserer Freunde erlauben wird oder uns gestattet, uns mit dem Gespräch über unsere gegenseitigen Beziehungen zu befassen?

Dieses Vorgehen ist den Presbytern in Schottland nicht unbekannt, wo es deren Führung aus Willkür unternahm, bürgerliche und friedliche Treffen von Freunden an allen Orten außer Kirche und Marktplatz unter dem Vorwand, Böses und Skandale zu verhindern, zu verbieten.

Ebenso weit wird religiöse und geistliche Rechtsprechung gehen, sogar bis zu den unbedeutendsten aller allgemeinen Handlungen, sofern sie in eifernde und untaugliche Hände fällt.

Gewährt der Obrigkeit nur einmal, sie habe die Macht den Untergeordneten zu arbeiten zu befehlen und auch deren Löhne zu begrenzen, und wer könnte uns dann versichern, sie würde nicht unter Beweis stellen, eher ein ägyptischer Oberaufseher als ein christlicher Regent zu sein und uns zwingen Ziegelsteine ohne Stroh zu produzieren, um Monumente für ihre Strenge und unser Sklaventum zu errichten.

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John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, Tract I, Section 49, Absatz 49,

John Locke: Two Tracts on Government

John Locke, Two Tracts on Government,

Tract I, Section 49, Absatz 49,

“You that are strong bear with the infirmities of the weak – whereas this practice will be so far from easing the burdens of the weak, that if men are at all scrupulous, it only lays more load upon them” (Quotation Bagshaw). What was meant by imposing or burdening the conscience I showed but now. But this text relating to scandal, which the author makes one of his arguments will be there more fitly spoken to, I shall here only say that bear with the infirmities signifies no more than not despise in the beginning of the foregoing chapter, and so is a rule to private Christians not to slight or undervalue those their brethren who being weak in the faith, i.e.: Not so fully informed and satisfied of the extent of their Christian liberty, scruple at matters indifferent, and are ready, as they are there described, to judge those that allow and practice them; and this a magistrate may do whilst he makes laws for their observance, he may pity those whom he punishes, nor in his thoughts condemn them because not so strong in the faith as others.

So that “this kind of rigor is not utterly inconsistent” as our author would persuade us with the rules of Christian charity, prescribed in this place, “which no Christian magistrate ought to think himself absolved from. Since though as magistrate he hath a power in civil things; yet as a Christian he ought to have a care that in things of spiritual concernment he grieves not the minds of any, who are upon that relation not his subjects so much as his brethren.” (Quotation Bagshaw)

If outward indifferent things be things of spiritual concernment I wish our author would do us the courtesy to show us the bounds of each and tell us where civil things end and spiritual begin. Is a courteous saluting, a friendly compellation, a decency of habit according to the fashion of the place, and indeed subjection to the civil magistrate, civil things, and these by many are made matters of conscience and there is no action so indifferent which a scrupulous conscience will not fetch in with some consequence from Scripture and make of spiritual concernment, and if nothing else will scandal at least shall reach him.

‚Tis true a Christian magistrate ought to deal tenderly with weak Christians, but must not so attend the infirmities and indulge the distempers of some few dissatisfied as to neglect the peace and safety of the whole.

The Christian magistrate is a brother to his fellow Christians and so may pity and bear with them but he is also their magistrate and must command and govern them, and if it be certain that to prescribe to the scrupulous be against this Scripture and be to lay load upon the weak, he will find it impossible not to offend, and burden a great part, some being as conscientiously earnest for conformity as others for liberty, and a law for toleration would as much offend their consciences as of limitation others. The magistrate he confessed may bound not abridge their liberty, a sentence very difficult to be understood and hard to be put into other words.

“Ihr, die ihr stark seid, tragt mit an den Lasten der Schwachen – wobei diese Praxis sehr weit weg davon sein würde, die Lasten der Schwachen zu erleichtern. Falls die Menschen überhaupt Skrupel haben sollten, wird sie ihnen nur noch mehr aufbürden.“
(Zitat Bagshaw).

Was mit Verfügung oder Belastung des Gewissens gemeint war, habe ich soeben gezeigt. Da sich dieser Text jedoch auf den Skandal bezieht, woraus sich der Autor eines seiner Argumente bastelt, wird darüber andernorts noch in passender Weise zu sprechen sein. Hier will ich mich damit begnügen klar zu machen, die Formel „die Schwächen mit zu tragen“ bedeutet nicht mehr, als anfangs des vorangegangenen Kapitels das „nicht schmähen“. Eben deshalb gilt als Regel im Privaten unter Christen, ihre Glaubensbrüder nicht zu kränken oder zu erniedrigen, weil sie schwach im Glauben sind. Damit ist gemeint:

Sie sind bezüglich der Reichweite ihrer Freiheit als Christen weder wirklich sattelfest noch gut informiert, haben wegen der unbestimmten und nebensächlichen Angelegenheiten Gewissensbisse und sind nur zu bereit, so wie sie dort beschrieben werden, über jene zu urteilen, die solche gestatten und ausführen. Die Handlungsfreiheit einer Obrigkeit besteht darin, verbindliche Gesetze über deren Ausübung zu erlassen. Sie kann diejenigen bedauern, die sie bestraft, darf sie dabei aber keineswegs in Gedanken verurteilen, nur weil sie nicht so stark im Glauben sind wie andere.

Wie unser Autor uns mittels der Regeln christlicher Barmherzigkeit gern überzeugen möchte, wie an dieser Stelle vorgeschrieben „ist diese Art der Strenge nicht vollkommen mit eben jenen Regeln unvereinbar, von denen sich keine christliche Obrigkeit je freigestellt zu sein glaubt. Denn als Obrigkeit hat sie zwar Macht in staatsbürgerlichen Angelegenheiten. Als Christen jedoch sollten sie dafür sorgen, dass sie bezüglich aller spirituellen Gegebenheiten nicht die Seelen eines einzigen kränken, der in dieser Hinsicht weder ihr Untergeordneter noch ihr Glaubensbruder ist.“
(Zitat Bagshaw)

Sofern äußerliche unbestimmte und nebensächliche Angelegenheiten wirklich Angelegenheiten spiritueller Befindlichkeit sein sollten, wünschte ich, unser Autor würde uns die Höflichkeit erweisen, uns für jede einzelne deren Grenzen nachzuweisen und uns klar zu erläutern, wo die staatsbürgerlichen Gegebenheiten enden und die geistigen beginnen. Sind höfliche Formen zu grüßen, freundlicher Nachdruck, Schicklichkeit der Bekleidung gemäß der lokalen Mode und tatsächliche Unterordnung unter die bürgerliche Obrigkeit nicht etwa staatsbürgerliche Angelegenheiten und handelt sich bei vielen Leuten dabei nicht etwa um Herausforderungen für ihr Gewissen? Es gibt dabei keine wirklich unbestimmte und unbedeutende Handlung, derer sich ein pedantisch gewissenhafter Geist nicht umgehend und nachhaltig mittels Belegen aus der Heiligen Schrift bemächtigen könnte, um daraus eine spirituelle Bewandtnis zu konstruieren, und die, selbst wenn damit nichts aufzubauschen ist, zumindest ihn bekannt macht.

Stimmt. Eine christliche Obrigkeit sollte sorgfältig mit schwachen Christen umgehen. Dennoch sollte sie sich keinesfalls derer Glaubensschwächen annehmen und der Griesgrämigkeit einiger weniger Unzufriedener nachgeben, damit sie dabei Frieden und Sicherheit aller nicht vernachlässigt.

Die Mitglieder der christlichen Obrigkeit sind gleichzeitig Glaubensbrüder ihrer Mitchristen, dürfen deshalb mit ihnen leiden und alle Lasten mittragen, und sind deren Obrigkeit, haben sie zu verwalten und zu regieren. Wäre es sicher, Vorschriften entgegen Gewissensnöte einiger zu erlassen, verstieße gegen dieses Gebot der Heiligen Schrift und bedeute, den Schwachen unrechtmäßig Lasten aufzuerlegen, dann würde sie es unmöglich vermeiden können, zu beleidigen oder einen Großteil zu belasten, da etlichen ihre Konformität eine ebenso ernsthafte Angelegenheit ist, wie vielen anderen ihre Freiheit, und ein Recht auf Toleranz würde deren Gewissen ebenso belasten wie eines der Einschränkung das der anderen. Die Obrigkeit, so gesteht der Autor zu, darf deren Freiheit begrenzen, aber nicht verringern. Diesen Satz zu verstehen oder in alternative Worte zu kleiden ist mehr als eine Herausforderung.

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John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, Tract I, Section 43, Absatz 43,

John Locke: Two Tracts on Government

John Locke, Two Tracts on Government,

Tract I, Section 43, Absatz 43,

I confess they had their original from divine authority, but ‚tis as true that they had their end, too, from the same divine appointment, and it was as sinful to urge them as obliging after God had abolished them, as it was to neglect them whilst he enjoined their observation; they were a law till Christ, not after, types and promises of the Messiah’s coming and kingdom, but not to be rules of obedience under it; those shadows vanished upon the rising of our Sun of Righteousness, and therefore, though their use were indifferent afterwards and lawful and their practice allowed both by the permission of the Apostles and their example too when it would any way advantage the gospel, or be any means of gaining converts or securing the peace of the church, but to allow their imposition and to acknowledge that law still in force which was to be abrogated by the coming of the Messiah was to contradict their own doctrine, and deny that Christ was come which was their great design to establish, so that the things were left but the law that formerly made them necessary removed, and for a man to think himself under the obligation of the ceremonial law and at the same time entertain the doctrine of the Gospel, was as impossible as to be a Jew and a Christian at once which St. Paul, makes inconsistent. So that it is no wonder he should so vigorously oppose the doctrine of subjection to the ceremonial law, which would ruin and undermine the very foundations of that religion he was then building; and so smartly handle St. Peter his fellow Apostle when by his carriage he seemed to confirm it.

Ich will gern zugestehen, dass dies seinen Ursprung in göttlicher Autorität hatte, aber es trifft ebenso zu, dass es auch durch diese göttliche Festlegung beendet wurde. Daher ist es ebenso sündhaft, es als dringend verbindlich zu vertreten, nachdem Gott es beseitigt hatte, als es zu missachten, solange man an Beachtung gebunden war. Es war geltendes Recht bis zu Christus, nicht nach ihm. Es war Vorgabe und Versprechen zum Erscheinen unseres Messias und seines Königreiches, nicht aber Regelwerk des Gehorsams unter ihm. Diese Schatten wurden durch den Aufgang unserer Sonne der Aufrichtigkeit vertrieben und deshalb, da ihr Gebrauch anschließend unbestimmt und rechtmäßig war und ihre Ausübung sowohl durch die Gestattung der Apostel und auch deren Beispiel erlaubt, solange es in irgendeiner Weise das Evangelium förderte, oder ein Mittel zur Gewinnung von Konvertiten war, oder den Frieden der Kirche sicherte. Indessen aber deren Verfügung weiterhin zu gestatten und dieses Recht als nach wie vor in Kraft anzuerkennen, welches durch die Ankunft des Messias außer Kraft gesetzt wurde, bedeutete der eigenen Lehre zu widersprechen und abzuleugnen, Jesus Christus sei gekommen. Und zwar genau das, dessen Etablierung Absicht für sie war. Womit nun die betreffenden Angelegenheiten sich selbst überlassen blieben, während das Recht, welches sie formal gestaltet hatte, notwendigerweise hinfällig wurde. Diese Konstellation, sich selbst als durch das Zeremonialrecht verpflichtet zu sehen und gleichzeitig die Lehre des Evangeliums zu verbreiten, war derart unmöglich, als gleichzeitig Jude und Christ zu sein, was der heilige Paulus als unvereinbar bezeichnet hat. Auf Grund dessen ist es alles andere als ein Wunder, wenn Paulus diese Lehre der Unterordnung unter das zeremonielle Recht so energisch bestreitet, die sämtliche originären Fundamente der Religion, die er dabei war aufzubauen, ruinierte und untergrub und wenn er dabei so gewitzt mit dem heiligen Petrus umging, seinem Mit-Apostel, sobald dieser durch sein Verhalten diese Lehre zu bestätigen schien.

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John Locke, Two Tracts on Government, Tract I, Section 18, Absatz 18,

John Locke, Two Tracts on Government,

Tract I, Section 18, Absatz 18,

V. That supposing man naturally owner of an entire liberty, and so much master of himself as to owe no subjection to any other but God alone (which is the freest condition we can fancy him in), it is yet the unalterable condition of society and government that every particular man must unavoidably part with this right to his liberty and entrust the magistrate* with as full a power over all his actions as he himself hath, it being otherwise impossible that anyone should be subject to the commands of another who retains the free disposure of himself, and is master of an equal liberty.

Nor do men, as some fondly conceive, enjoy any greater share of this freedom in a pure commonwealth, if anywhere to be found, than in an absolute monarchy, the same arbitrary power being there in the assembly (which acts like one person) as in a monarch, wherein each particular man hath no more power (bating the inconsiderable addition of his single vote) of himself to make new or dispute old laws than in a monarchy; all he can do (which is no more than Kings allow petitioners) is to persuade the majority which is the monarch.

V. Vorauszusetzen, der Mensch sei Inhaber einer umfassenden Freiheit und dabei so sehr Herr seiner selbst, dass er niemandem sonst Unterordnung schuldet als Gott allein (worin der allfreieste Zustand besteht, den wir uns für ihn vorstellen können), ist dabei die unabänderliche Vorbedingung von Gesellschaft und Regentschaft, dass jeder einzelne Mensch sich unvermeidbar dieses Rechts auf seine Freiheit begeben musste und die Obrigkeit vollumfänglich mit all der Macht über seinen Handlungsweise ausstatten musste, die er selbst hatte. Ansonsten wäre es geradewegs unmöglich, dass irgendjemand den Anordnungen eines anderen untergeordnet wäre, solange er die freie Verfügung über sich selbst zurückbehält und Herr einer ebenso umfassenden Freiheit bleibt. Genauso wenig genießen Menschen, wie manche sich inniglich vorstellen, keineswegs ein größeres Maß an verbleibender Freiheit in einer reinen Republik, sofern überhaupt irgendwo eine solche existiert, als in einer absoluten Monarchie. Die identische willkürliche Macht liegt dort bei der Versammlung (die nach außen wie eine Person handelt), wie hier bei einem Monarchen. Innerhalb dieses Gebildes hat kein einzelner Mensch (bereinigt um die unbedeutende Anrechnung seiner einzelnen Stimme) noch irgendwelche verbliebene Macht aus sich selbst heraus, neue Vorschriften und Gesetze zu erlassen oder alte zu abzustreiten, als er sie in einer Monarchie hätte. Alles was er tun kann (was weitaus mehr ist, als Könige Petenten zugestehen) besteht darin, die Mehrheit davon zu überzeugen, die in diesem Fall der Monarch ist.

*By magistrate I understand the supreme legislative power of any society not considering the form of government or number of persons wherein it is placed. Only give me leave to say that the indelible memory of our late miseries and the happy return of our ancient freedom and felicity, are proofs sufficient to convince us where the supreme power of these nations is most advantageously placed, without the assistance of any other arguments.

* Unter Obrigkeit verstehe ich die oberste legislative Macht in einer jeden Gesellschaft, ungeachtet der Regierungsform oder der Anzahl an Personen, denen sie anvertraut wurde. Gewährt mir an dieser Stelle Raum für die Anmerkung, dass die unauslöschliche Erinnerung an unsere jüngsten Qualen und die glücklicherweise erfolgte Rückkehr unserer alten Freiheiten und Glücksumstände ein hinreichender Beweis sind, um uns zu überzeugen, wo diese oberste Macht dieser Nationen am chancenreichsten anzusiedeln ist. Dazu bedarf es dann keiner weiteren Hilfe durch irgendwelche zusätzlichen Argumente mehr.

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TToG II § 239

John Locke: Two Treatises of Government

§ 239. In these cases Barclay, the great champion of absolute monarchy, is forced to allow, that a King may be resisted and ceases to be a King. That is in short not to multiply cases in whatsoever he has no authority, there he is no King, and may be resisted: For wheresoever the authority ceases, the King ceases too and becomes like other men who have no authority.

And these two cases he instances in differ little from those above mentioned, to be destructive to governments, only that he has omitted the principle from which his doctrine flows; and that is, the breach of trust, in not preserving the form of government agreed on and in not intending the end of government itself, which is the public good and preservation of property39.

When a King has dethroned himself and put himself in a state of war with his people, what shall hinder them from prosecuting him who is no King, as they would any other man, who has put himself into a state of war with them; Barclay, and those of his opinion, would do well to tell us. This farther I desire may be taken notice of out of Barclay, that he says: The mischief that is designed them, the people may prevent before it be done:

Whereby he allows resistance when tyranny is but in design. Such designs as these (says he) when any King harbors in his thoughts and seriously promotes, he immediately gives up all care and thought of the commonwealth; so that, according to him, the neglect of the public good is to be taken as an evidence of such design, or at least for a sufficient cause of resistance.

And the reason of all he gives in these words, because he betrayed or forced his people whose liberty he ought carefully to have preserved. What he adds into the power and dominion of a foreign nation signifies nothing, the fault and forfeiture lying in the loss of their liberty, which he ought to have preserved and not in any distinction of the persons to whose dominion they were subjected. The people’s right is equally invaded and their liberty lost, whether they are made slaves to any of their own, or a foreign nation; and in this lies the injury and against this only they have the right of defense. And there are instances to be found in all countries, which show, that it is not the change of nations in the persons of their governors, but the change of government, that gives the offence.

Bilson76, a bishop of our church and a great stickler for the power and prerogative of Princes, does, if I mistake not in his treatise of Christian subjection acknowledge, that Princes may forfeit their power and their title to the obedience of their subjects; and if there needed authority in a case where reason is so plain, I could send my reader to Bracton77, Fortescue78 and the author of the Mirror and others, writers that cannot be suspected to be ignorant of our government or enemies to it.

But I thought Hooker alone might be enough to satisfy those men, who relying on him for their ecclesiastical polity, are by a strange fate carried to deny those principles upon which he builds it.

Whether they are herein made the tools of cunninger workmen, to pull down their own fabric, they were best look. This I am sure, their civil policy is so new, so dangerous and so destructive to both rulers and people, that as former ages never could bear the broaching of it; so it may be hoped, those to come, redeemed from the impositions of these Egyptian under-task-masters, will abhor the memory of such servile flatterers, who, whilst it seemed to serve their turn, resolved all government into absolute tyranny, and would have all men born to, what their mean souls fitted them for: Slavery.

§ 239. In diesen Fällen ist Barclay, der Großmeister absoluter Monarchie, genötigt zuzugeben: Einem König darf Widerstand geleistet werden und er hört auf König zu sein. Das heißt in Kürze, um die Fälle nicht zu vermehren: Wo und wann auch immer er keinerlei Autorität hat, ist er kein König und man darf sich ihm widersetzen.

Wo die Autorität aufhört, hört auch der König auf und wird anderen Menschen gleich, die keine Autorität haben. Die beiden Fälle, die er als Beispiel anführt, unterscheiden sich in ihrer Verderblichkeit für die Regierung nur wenig von den oben erwähnten. Nur hat er das Prinzip übersehen, aus dem seine Lehre entspringt. Darin besteht der Vertrauensbruch. Die vereinbarte Form der Regierung nicht zu bewahren, und nicht nach dem Ziel der Regierung selbst zu streben, der im Erhalt des öffentlichen Wohls und des Eigentums39 besteht.

Wenn ein König sich selbst entthront und sich in einen Kriegszustand mit seiner Bevölkerung gesetzt hat, was soll diese daran hindern, denjenigen zu verfolgen, der kein König ist, wie es jeden anderen verfolgen würde, der sich in einen Kriegszustand mit ihm gesetzt hat?

Barclay und diejenigen, welche seiner Meinung sind, täten gut daran uns das zu verraten. Weiter wünschte ich, von dem, was Barclay sagt, werde das folgende klar beachtet: Dem Unheil, das man gegen die Bevölkerung im Schilde führt, darf vorgebeugt werden, bevor es geschieht. Dadurch billigt er den Widerstand bereits wenn Tyrannei erst noch ein Vorsatz ist. Mit Absichten wie dieser, sagt er, gibt ein König, wenn er sie in seine Gedanken aufnimmt und ernsthaft betreibt, sofort alle Sorge und alles Denken an den Staat auf.

Damit ist nach Barclay die Vernachlässigung des öffentlichen Wohls als Beweis eines solchen Vorhabens oder mindestens als ein hinreichender Anlass des Widerstands anzusehen. Den Grund für alles liefert er mit folgenden Worten:

Weil er sein Volk, dessen Freiheit er sorgfältig hätte bewahren müssen, verraten oder ausgeliefert hat…

Was er hinzufügt: Unter Macht und Herrschaft einer fremden Nation, ist ohne Bedeutung. Das Verbrechen und die Verwirkung liegen in dem Verlust der Freiheit, die er hätte bewahren sollen und nicht im Unterschied der Personen deren Herrschaft sie unterworfen wurden.

Das Recht des Volkes wird auf gleiche Weise angegriffen und seine Freiheit geht ebenso verloren, ob es zu Sklaven eines aus seiner Mitte oder einer fremden Nation gemacht wird. Darin liegt das Unrecht und gegen dieses allein hat es das Recht der Verteidigung. In allen Ländern sind Beispiele zu finden, die zeigen: Bei den Nationen ist es nicht der Wechsel bei der Person ihrer Regenten, was den Anstoß erregt, sondern der Wechsel der Regierung.

Bilson76, ein Bischof unserer Kirche und großer Eiferer für Macht und Prärogative – Vorbehaltsrecht – der Fürsten, bekennt, wenn ich mich nicht irre, in seiner Abhandlung über Christliche Untertänigkeit: Fürsten können Macht und Anspruch auf den Gehorsam ihrer Untertanen verwirken.

Wenn es weiterer Autorität bedarf in einem Fall, in dem die Vernunft so klar ist, könnte ich meine Leser auf Bracton77, Fortescue78, den Autor des „Mirror“ u. a. verweisen. Schriftsteller, die nicht in Verdacht geraten können unsere Regierung nicht anzuerkennen oder ihr feindlich zu sein. Ich glaubte Hooker würde ausreichen, diejenigen zu überzeugen, die sich mit Kirchenpolitik auf ihn stützen und durch ein merkwürdiges Schicksal dahin gebracht werden, die Prinzipien zu verneinen, auf die sie aufbauen. Ob sie dabei Werkzeugen gerissener Handwerker gemacht worden sind, ihren eigenen Bau niederzureißen, dass sollen sie selber herausfinden.

Dessen bin ich sicher: Ihre staatliche Politik ist so neu, so gefährlich und so verderblich für beide, Herrscher und Volk. So wie frühere Zeitalter niemals deren Aufkommen ertragen konnten, darf gehofft werden, die kommenden, erlöst von den Betrügereien dieser ägyptischen Unter-Arbeitsvögte, werden das Andenken an diese kriecherischen Schleimer verabscheuen.

Jene die, solange es ihren Zwecken zu dienen schien, alle Regierung auf absolute Tyrannei zurückführten und alle Menschen dazu geboren sehen wollten, worauf ihre wertlosen Seelen sie selbst vorbereiteten:

Auf Sklaverei!

39Property in Lockes wider definition: liberty, life, estate,… what we need to discuss of…

39Eigentum nach Lockes Definition, im Sinne des Staatszwecks: Freiheit, Leben und Vermögen (liberty, life and estate): Property by John Lockes own definition…for the mutual preservation of their lives, liberties and estates, which I call by the general name, property. II §123; §87; §127; §131; §134; §138; §139; §170; §171; §174; §199; §200; §201; §221; §222; §226; §227; §228; § 229; §231; §239;

76https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bilson
77https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_de_Bracton
78https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fortescue_(judge)
78https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fortescue_(Jurist)

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TToG II § 211

John Locke: Two Treatises of Government

CHAPTER XIX

Of the Dissolution of Government

§ 211. He that will with any clearness speak of the dissolution of government, ought in the first place to distinguish between the dissolution of the society and the dissolution of the government. That which makes the community, and brings men out of the loose state of nature, into one politic society, is the agreement which everyone has with the rest to incorporate, and act as one body, and so be one distinct commonwealth.

The usual, and almost only way whereby this union is dissolved, is the inroad of foreign force making a conquest upon them: For in that case, (not being able to maintain and support themselves, as one entire and independent body) the union belonging to that body which consisted therein, must necessarily cease, and so everyone return to the state he was in before, with a liberty to shift for himself, and provide for his own safety, as he thinks fit, in some other society.

Whenever the society is dissolved, it is certain the government of that society cannot remain. Thus conquerors swords often cut up governments by the roots, and mangle societies to pieces, separating the subdued or scattered multitude from the protection of and dependence on that society, which ought to have preserved them from violence.

The world is too well instructed in and too forward to allow of, this way of dissolving of governments, to need any more to be said of it; and there wants not much argument to prove, that where the society is dissolved, the government cannot remain; that being as impossible, as for the frame of an house to subsist when the materials of it are scattered and dissipated by a whirlwind, or jumbled into a confused heap by an earthquake.

Kapitel 19

Auflösung der Regierung

§ 211. Wer einigermaßen klar über die Auflösung der Regierung sprechen will, hat an erster Stelle einen Unterschied zwischen der Auflösung der Gesellschaft und der Auflösung der Regierung klar zu machen.

Was das Gemeinwesen bildet, und Menschen aus dem losen Naturzustand in politische Gesellschaft bringt, ist die Übereinkunft, die jeder einzelne mit allen Übrigen getroffen hat, sich zu einem Körper zu vereinigen, wie ein Körper zu handeln und so ein eigenständiges Gemeinwesen zu bilden.

Der gewöhnliche und fast einzige Weg, wie diese Vereinigung aufgelöst wird, ist der Einmarsch einer fremden Macht, die sie unterwirft. In diesem Fall ist sie nicht im Stande, sich länger als vollständiger und unabhängiger Körper zu behaupten und zu erhalten. Daher endet die zu diesem Körper gehörende Vereinigung notwendigerweise und jeder kehrt in den Zustand zurück, in dem er vorher war: In die Freiheit, sich selbst zu helfen und nach eigenem Dafürhalten für seine Sicherheit in einer anderen Gesellschaft zu sorgen.

Wird die Gesellschaft aufgelöst, kann die Regierung dieser Gesellschaft kaum bestehen bleiben. So schlägt das Schwert des Eroberers häufig die Regierungen an der Wurzel ab und zerstückelt Gesellschaften, indem es die unterworfene und zerstreute Menge vom Schutz und der Abhängigkeit der Gesellschaft trennt, die sie
vor Gewalt schützen sollte. Die Welt ist mit dieser Art Regierungen aufzulösen zu gut vertraut und allzu bereit, sie zuzulassen, als dass mehr darüber gesagt werden müsste. Es bedarf weniger Argumente um zu beweisen, wo eine Gesellschaft aufgelöst ist, kann Regierung nicht weiter bestehen. Das wäre ebenso unmöglich, wie der Rohbau eines Hauses stehen bliebe, wenn die Materialien durch einen Wirbelwind zerstreut, oder durch ein Erdbeben in einen chaotischen Haufen zusammengeworfen werden.

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TToG II § 198

John Locke: Two Treatises of Government

§ 198. In all lawful governments, the designation of the persons, who are to bear rule, is as natural and necessary a part as the form of the government itself, and is that which had its establishment originally from the people; the anarchy64 being much alike, to have no form of government at all; or to agree, that it shall be monarchical, but to appoint no way to design the person that shall have the power, and be the monarch.

Hence all commonwealths with the form of government established have rules also of appointing those who are to have any share in the public authority, and settled methods of conveying the right to them: Whoever gets into the exercise of any part of the power, by other ways than what the laws of the community have prescribed, hath no right to be obeyed, though the form of the commonwealth be still preserved; since he is not the person the laws have appointed, and consequently not the person the people have consented to. Nor can such an usurper, or any deriving from him, ever have a title, till the people are both at liberty to consent, and have actually consented to allow, and confirm in him the power he hath till then usurped.

§ 198. Bei allen rechtmäßigen Regierungsformen ist die Bestimmung der Personen, welche die Regierung zu tragen haben, eine ebenso natürliche und notwendige Aufgabe, wie die der Form der Regierung selbst, und zwar diejenige, die ursprünglich vom Volk selbst festgelegt wurde. Die Anarchie64 gleicht ziemlich dem Zustand gar keine Regierung zu haben oder einer Übereinkunft, sie solle monarchisch sein ohne einen Weg zur Bestimmung der Person festzulegen, die Macht haben und Monarch sein soll.

Daher haben Staaten mit festgelegter Regierungsform auch Regeln, diejenigen zu bestimmen, die Anteil an der öffentlichen Autorität haben sollen und etablierte Methoden, ihnen die Berechtigung dazu zu übertragen. Wer auch immer zu Ausübung eines Teils der Macht auf andere Weise gelangt, als Gesetze der Gemeinschaft vorgeschrieben haben, hat kein Recht auf Gehorsam, selbst wenn die Form des Staats erhalten bleibt. Denn er ist nicht die vom Gesetz bestimmte Person und folglich genauso wenig diejenige, der das Volk seine Zustimmung gewährt hat.

So ein Usurpator oder irgendein Nachkomme kann auch niemals einen Anspruch haben, bevor das Volk sowohl die Freiheit hat ihn zu akzeptieren als auch tatsächlich zugestimmt hat, ihm Macht zu gewähren und zu bestätigen, die er bis dahin usurpiert hatte.

64https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchy
64https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchie

65Within the 1821 Edition is repeated a passage already given some lines above, I cutted off being unnecessary therefore:

For the anarchy64 is much alike, to have no form of government at all: Or to agree that it shall be monarchical, but to appoint no way to know or design the person that shall have the power, and be the monarch.

In this 1821 edition some liens of the text here are repeated, which I cut off for.
In der genutzten Ausgabe von 1821 wiederholt sich hier eine wenige Zeilen zuvor stehende Textpassage, die ich ausgeschnitten habe.

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